By the end of 2015, three global policy processes will have set the stage for how the world responds to major challenges facing humanity in the years to come. A voluntary agreement to tackle disasters was reached in Sendai, Japan, in March; the voluntary Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were finalised in New York, United States, in September; and now, the world is moving towards the December climate change negotiations, aiming to agree an international treaty in Paris, France.[1,2]
Science has long indicated that these three topics are connected. Separating them may be unnecessary and even counterproductive. Yet this policy separation is now more or less entrenched for the foreseeable future.
But this does not preclude using scientific evidence to identify actions common to all three. This would conserve resources, avoid one process causing or exacerbating difficulties for another, and encourage measures that align two or more objectives.
The idea of enfolding climate change within wider development topics has been present since climate change emerged as an important global concern.[3] Yet scientists and politicians sometimes put forward climate change as the overarching or most important issue. They argue that the changes are so vast, swift and devastating that we must focus resources and attention on them.
Sometimes, climate change is indeed the main threat (see box 1). But examining it in the wider context of development does not downplay its importance. Rather, it highlights how climate change connects with and influences other development concerns.
Box 1: Where climate change dominates |
Some communities are being forced to move due only to climate change. Residents of Takuu and the Carteret Islands in Papua New Guinea are planning their relocation, as are the villagers of Newtok and Shishmaref in the US state of Alaska. In Papua New Guinea, rising sea levels have led to flooding, contaminating crops and water supplies with salt water. And in Alaska, increasingly intense storms are eroding the coast, casting buildings into the sea. Other low-lying locations, such as coastal Bangladesh, Tuvalu and Kiribati in the Pacific, and the Maldives in the Indian Ocean also face potential mass upheaval. |
Past to present
The suggestion that emissions of greenhouse gases influence the atmosphere, altering climate (see box 2), dates back to at least the nineteenth century.[7] Major science reports, published in the 1970s, then provided the foundation for policy processes including the UNFCCC (UN Framework Convention on Climate Change).[8-11] They also prompted further scientific assessments, including the UN mechanism through which governments assess the state of climate change, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (See figure 1 for major milestones)
Box 2: What is climate change? |
Human activities release carbon dioxide and other ‘greenhouse gases’ by burning coal, oil, and natural gas to generate electricity, using petrol to power vehicles and raising large herds of livestock. These gases accumulate and trap heat in the atmosphere, raising the planet’s average temperature and affecting the earth’s climate system. Human-induced changes that reduce the planet’s ability to absorb these greenhouse gases reinforce their impact. For example, widespread deforestation means fewer trees to absorb carbon dioxide as they grow. Oceans also absorb carbon dioxide, which reacts with water to make an acid. Ocean acidification is one of the impacts of climate change: more carbon dioxide in the air means more acidic oceans, potentially harming marine and coastal ecosystems. There are many ‘feedback loops’ — some contributing to climate change and some lessening it — which makes understanding climate change more complex. Warming the seas makes them more or less able to absorb carbon dioxide, depending on location.[12] Large volcanic eruptions block sunlight when they throw dust into the atmosphere, but the effects are temporary. The effect of clouds is difficult to model, whereas the loss of glaciers and ice sheets through melting reduces the amount of sunlight reflected away from earth. And melting permafrost releases trapped natural greenhouse gases. Yet, despite the complexities and uncertainties, overall the science is clear: the planet is undergoing a rapid warming with a significant contribution from human activity. |
Climate change impacts
Climate change influences weather patterns and their extremes. Warmer air holds more water, making intense downpours more likely. This means that storms are likely to become more intense in many parts of the world due to climate change — but are also less frequent in some cases. This includes tropical cyclones.[13,14]
Climate change is predicted to increase ocean acidity and raise sea levels. A global average sea-level rise of roughly one meter up to 2100 seems likely because water expands as it warms. If large, land-based ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica melt, then sea level could rise by several meters, inundating major cities.
Warmer climates will radically change ecosystems, possibly spreading human, animal and plant diseases into new locations. Changing rainfall will affect freshwater supplies, with some places receiving more and others less, in turn affecting food supplies. Some locations will gain substantially from improved agriculture while others could see local food sources being wiped out (figure 2).[15]
Figure 2. Impacts attributed to climate change with high confidence
Climate change impacts will also vary depending on development-related factors. A hazard, like a storm, is not enough to cause a disaster — vulnerability is also part of the equation. A weather-related event becomes a disaster when it harms people, property or social relationships, usually because political and development processes have not helped people reduce their vulnerability. Climate change itself cannot cause a disaster.
Pulling apart
Despite these connections, funders, institutions and governance structures frequently single out climate change and treat it independently. This is partly because of how the science and policy of climate change has evolved. Many scientists research only a particular dimension of climate change, and many treaty negotiators specialize in a single topic to ensure that agreements are detailed and robust.
In terms of policy, this separation is also reflected in the Sustainable Development Goals. Goal 13 calls for “urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts”, and singles out the UNFCCC as “the primary international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change”.
The IPCC and UNFCCC processes have also separated climate change from other development topics. And they have separated climate change mitigation (cutting emissions or ‘capturing’ carbon) from adaptation (dealing with climate change impacts, which is part of disaster risk reduction).
Clear overlaps
Despite the separation between the international policies for climate change, disaster risk reduction and development goals, science backs their full integration so they can complement and support each other.
One reason for this support is that dealing with climate change’s impacts is not really different from disaster risk reduction and sustainable development processes. In fact, all climate change adaptation sits within wider development objectives. Protecting coral reefs and restoring coastal mangroves, for example, can reduce disaster risk: coastal vegetation sometimes absorbs wave power, so infrastructure may experience less damage. Upgrading sewer systems and planning for better urban water drainage count as adaptation — but are needed irrespective of climate change.
Similarly, all mitigation sits within wider environmental objectives. Efforts to lessen dependency on fossil fuels, by using renewable energy sources and reducing energy demand, predate the climate change agenda. Health was a primary reason: reducing air and water pollutants and promoting more active lifestyles are standard approaches for improving wellbeing. The 1973-74 Oil Embargo and other political events also spurred on these attempts, which foundered as politics and oil prices changed.
Many scientists have long supported joint action on mitigation and adaptation[16-19] to help avoid exacerbating existing development problems. For example, protecting a forest as a ‘carbon sink’ (for mitigation) by forbidding access means local forest users lose food and income opportunities, making them more dependent on expensive and less reliable supplies from outside their community.[20] Projects for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) programs may carry this hidden cost.
Hydropower also shows the risks of separating climate change from wider development concerns. Constructing large dams can reduce fossil fuel consumption by providing renewable energy. But in Egypt, China and many other countries, creating vast reservoirs has forced people to move as their homes are submerged.[21] Increasing control over water flow also leads to a false sense of security, making people less likely to take measures that reduce their vulnerability to drought and flood. The impacts of a major flood or drought are then worse than if people had continually been dealing with more frequent, smaller hazards.[22]
One key lesson is that disasters are not just unusual extremes, but also represent the chronic, underlying vulnerabilities in most people’s lives. In other words, over the long term, many disasters emerge from poor development or underdevelopment, influenced by policy and practice that lead to vulnerability. Discrimination, power, financial structures and culture are some of the reasons why people do not always act on knowledge about reducing vulnerability.
The opportunities for making these connections become clearer when climate change is seen as being one influencer of hazards among many, rather than as an entirely separate sector.
Opportunities for joint action
Even with a policy separation so entrenched that integration seems unlikely until at least 2030 (when the SDG and disaster risk reduction agreements expire), actual interventions could overlap more in practice by building on existing science (Table 1).
Occasional conflicts
Some mitigation and adaptation actions can clash with wider development aims.
For mitigation, techniques for capturing greenhouse gases, called carbon capture and storage (CCS), trap emissions at power plants for storage underground or underwater (see figure 3).
Objections to the technique include the possibility of the gases leaking back into the atmosphere, the capital costs of constructing power plants with CCS included and the energy use of capturing and pumping the gases.[27]
In the first section of a two-part interview, Saleemul Huq, senior fellow at the International Institute for Environment and Development in the United Kingdom, talks to Anita Makri about how policies on climate change, development and disaster reduction are separate at the global level but become increasingly connected as they progress down to the local level. He also discusses the role of scientific evidence and how it can help vulnerable communities improve their participation in decisions that affect them.
More fundamentally, CCS contradicts the long-standing principle of pollution prevention, which holds that the cheapest and most effective way of dealing with pollution is to avoid creating it in the first place. Applying this principle, which was developed to deal with environmental problems such as acid rain, suggests that changing to clean energy and curbing emissions by reducing energy use are preferable to techniques such as CCS.
If wider development concerns are not considered, adaptation measures can sometimes foster ‘maladaptation’. For example, if heatwaves in major cities become more frequent and extreme, then adaptation might entail using more air conditioning and fans, which are energy intensive, contributing to the root causes of climate change. Instead, appropriate building design and materials, including natural ventilation techniques, can be cheaper and more flexible.
Creating a future
Climate and emissions scenarios are based on modelling. The vast amounts of earth-observation data being collected help to continually refine and calibrate climate change models, but our limited processing and analysis abilities mean uncertainty continues. In addition, vested interests often seize on the healthy debates within climate change science to undermine mitigation and adaptation efforts. Placing climate change within wider development contexts can help to overcome both barriers to action.
The IPCC’s Sixth Assessment process is due to start soon, with a newly elected chair, and the relevant reports will probably be released by 2022. Although the IPCC process continues to view climate change as a stand-alone scientific discipline, many other initiatives produce research documenting areas of overlap with wider concerns.[28]
These publications could be used to move climate change science and policy into a wider context. This is a challenge and an opportunity for the Sixth assessment report and the new IPCC chair. One solid way to become more interdisciplinary would be by adding a mechanism for incorporating local, indigenous and traditional knowledge of climate change impacts and responses into IPCC reports.
However, the biggest immediate policy milestone is the negotiations at COP 21, taking place in Paris, France, this December. The future of intergovernmental climate change action, within or external to development and disaster risk reduction, depends on any agreement reached in Paris and its subsequent ratification.
In the second section of a two-part interview, Saleemul Huq, senior fellow at the International Institute for Environment and Development in the United Kingdom, talks to Anita Makri about stepping up mitigation ambitions at the UN’s climate summit in Paris – and beyond. He discusses the need to support vulnerable countries on adaptation, and how a poor country like Bangladesh is already working to mainstream climate change policies across sectors. Nonetheless, many climate change science, policy and practice initiatives occur beyond the UNFCCC and IPCC. In September 2014, the UN hosted a climate summit in New York, United States, where organizations from the public, non-profit and private sectors pledged action in eight areas: agriculture, cities, energy, financing, forests, industry, resilience and transportation.[29] It emphasized how much can happen beyond the UN and the IPCC to deal jointly with climate change action and development that helps people’s day-to-day lives.
References
[1] Sendai framework for disaster risk reduction 2015-2030 (UNISDR, 2015)
[2] https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org [Insert formal citation when they are published.]
[3] Jessica Mercer Disaster risk reduction or climate change adaptation: Are we reinventing the wheel? (Journal of International Development, 2010)
[4] Karen McNamara and Chris Gibson ‘We do not want to leave our land’: Pacific ambassadors at the United Nations resist the category of ‘climate refugees’ (Geoforum, 2009)
[5] IIan Kelman Difficult decisions: migration from small island developing states under climate change (Earth’s Future, 2015)
[6] Roger McLean and Paul Kench Destruction or persistence of coral atoll islands in the face of 20th and 21st century sea‐level rise? (Climate Change, 2015)
[7] John Tyndall The Bakerian Lecture: on the absorption and radiation of heat by gases and vapours, and on the physical connexion of radiation, absorption, and conduction (Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 1861)
[8] Study of Critical Environmental Problems Man’s impact on the global environment (Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1970)
[9] Study of Man’s Impact on Climate Inadvertent climate modification(Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1971)
[10] Klaus Beltzner Living with climatic change: proceedings from the Toronto conference workshop, 17-22 November 1975 (Science Council of Canada, 1976)
[11] Edwin Keitz and Dorothy Berks Living with climatic change phase II: a summary report from a symposium and workshop held by the MITRE Corporation, McLean, Virginia, 9-11 November 1976 (Mitre Corporation, 1977)
[12] Adam C. Martiny and others Strong latitudinal patterns in the elemental ratios of marine plankton and organic matter (Nature Geoscience, 2013)
[13] Thomas Knutson and others Tropical cyclones and climate change(Nature Geoscience, 2010)
[14] Matthias Zahn and Hans von Storch Decreased frequency of North Atlantic polar lows associated with future climate warming (Nature, 2010)
[15] Fifth assessment report (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2013-14)
[16] Hanha Dang and others Synergy of adaptation and mitigation strategies in the context of sustainable development: the case of Vietnam(Climate Policy, 2003)
[17] Sally Kane and Jason Shogren Linking adaptation and mitigation in climate change policy (Climatic Change, 2000)
[18] Evan Mills Synergisms between climate change mitigation and adaptation: an insurance perspective (Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 2007)
[19] A. Nyong and others The value of indigenous knowledge in climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies in the African Sahel(Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 2007)
[20] Jaboury Ghazoul and others REDD: a reckoning of environment and development implications (Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 2010)
[21] World Commission on Dams Dams and development: a new framework for decision-making (Earthscan, 2000)
[22] David Etkin Risk transference and related trends: driving forces towards more mega-disasters (Environmental Hazards, 1999)
[23] Vietnam — 2009 — Typhoons Ketsana and Mirinae(Sheltercasestudies.org, accessed 17 September 2015)
[24] Max Martin A tale of two rivers (Kalvi Kendra, 2011) [link to PDF]
[25] Jonathan Pugh Speaking without voice: participatory planning, acknowledgment, and latent subjectivity in Barbados (Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 2013)
[26] Managing coastal erosion in the Seychelles (YouTube, video published 11 April 2013)
[27] Matthew Boot-Handford and others Carbon capture and storage update (Energy & Environmental Science, 2014)
[28] Jeff Waage and Chris Yap (eds.) Thinking beyond sectors for sustainable development (Ubiquity Press, 2015)
Source: SciDevNet | 14 October 2015